Inflammation: A focus on cytokines - Part 2

Cytokine

Family

Main sources

Function

IL-1β

IL-1

Macrophages, monocytes

Pro-inflammation, proliferation, apoptosis, differentiation

IL-4

IL-4

Th-cells

Anti-inflammation, T-cell and B-cell proliferation, B-cell differentiation

IL-6

IL-6

Macrophages, T-cells, adipocyte

Pro-inflammation, differentiation, cytokine production

IL-8

CXC

Macrophages, epithelial cells, endothelial cells

Pro-inflammation, chemotaxis, angiogenesis

IL-10

IL-10

Monocytes, T-cells, B-cells

Anti-inflammation, inhibition of the pro-inflammatory cytokines

IL-12

IL-12

Dendritic cells, macrophages, neutrophils

Pro-inflammation, cell differentiation, activates NK cell

IL-11

IL-6

Fibroblasts, neurons, epithelial cells

Anti-inflammation, differentiation, induces acute phase protein

TNF-α

TNF

Macrophages, NK cells, CD4+lymphocytes, adipocyte

Pro-inflammation, cytokine production, cell proliferation, apoptosis, anti-infection

IFN-γ

INF

T-cells, NK cells, NKT cells

Pro-inflammation, innate, adaptive immunity anti-viral

GM-CSF

IL-4

T-cells, macrophages, fibroblasts

Pro-inflammation, macrophage activation, increase neutrophil and monocyte function

TGF-β

TGF

Macrophages, T cells

Anti-inflammation, inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokine production

Interleukin-1 (IL-1)

Macrophages, large granular lymphocytes, B cells, endothelium, fibroblasts, and astrocytes secrete IL-1. T cells, B cells, macrophages, endothelium and tissue cells are the principal targets. IL-1 causes lymphocyte activation, macrophage stimulation, increased leukocyte/endothelial adhesion, fever due to hypothalamus stimulation, and release of acute phase proteins by the liver. It may also cause apoptosis in many cell types and cachexia.

IL-1 acts on the hypothalamus to induce fever and is therefore called an endogenous pyrogen. It operates on hepatocytes to increase synthesis of specific serum proteins, such as amyloid A protein and fibrinogen. It causes fall in blood pressure or shock in large amounts. Corticosteroids inhibit the IL-1 effect.

Interleukin-2 (IL-2)

T cells produce IL-2. The principal targets are T cells. Its primary effects are T-cell proliferation and differentiation, increased cytokine synthesis, potentiating Fas-mediated apoptosis, and promoting regulatory T cell development. It causes proliferation and activation of NK cells and B-cell proliferation and antibody synthesis. Also, it stimulates the activation of cytotoxic lymphocytes and macrophages

Gene knockout mouse studies have provided evidence that the primary IL-2 function in vivo is the suppression of T responses. Mice lacking IL-2 or its receptor (CD25) develop lymphadenopathy and T cell-mediated autoimmunity.

Interleukin-3 (IL-3)

T cells and stem cells make IL-3. It functions as a multilineage colony-stimulating factor.

Interleukin-4 (IL-4)

CD4+T cells (Th2) synthesize IL-4, and it acts on both B and T cells. It is a B-cell growth factor and causes IgE and IgG1 isotype selection. It causes Th2 differentiation and proliferation, and it inhibits IFN gamma-mediated activation on macrophages. It promotes mast cell proliferation in vivo.

Interleukin-5 (IL-5)

CD4+T cells (Th2) produce IL-5, and its principal targets are B cells. It causes B-cell growth factor and differentiation and IgA selection. Besides, causes eosinophil activation and increased production of these innate immune cells.

Interleukin-6 (IL-6)

T and B lymphocytes, fibroblasts and macrophages make IL-6. B lymphocytes and hepatocytes are its principal targets. IL-6 primary effects include B-cell differentiation and stimulation of acute phase proteins.

Interleukin-7 (IL-7)

Bone marrow stromal cells produce IL-7 that acts on pre-B cells and T cells. It causes B-cell and T-cell proliferation.

Interleukin-8 (IL-8)

Monocytes and fibroblasts make IL-8. Its principal targets are neutrophils, basophils, mast cells, macrophages, and keratinocytes. It causes neutrophil chemotaxis, angiogenesis, superoxide release, and granule release.

Interleukin-9 (IL-9)  

Th9, Th2, Th17, mast cells, NKT cells, and regulatory T cells produce this cytokine. It enhances T-cell survival, mast cell activation and synergy with erythropoietin.

Interleukin-10 (IL-10)

Th2 cells produce IL-10. Its principal targets are Th1 cells. It causes inhibition of IL-2 and interferon gamma. It decreases the antigen presentation, and MHC class II expression of dendritic cells, co-stimulatory molecules on macrophages and it also downregulates pathogenic Th17 cell responses. It inhibits IL-12 production by macrophages.

Knockout mice lacking IL-10 develop inflammatory bowel disease, probably because of uncontrolled activation of macrophages reacting to enteric microbes. 

Interleukin-11 (IL-11)

Bone marrow stromal cells and fibroblasts produce IL-11. The IL-11 principal targets are hemopoietic progenitors and osteoclasts. The IL-11 primary effects include osteoclast formation, colony stimulating factor, raised platelet count in vivo, and inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokine production.

Interleukin-12 (IL-12)

Monocytes produce IL-12. Its principal targets are T cells. It causes induction of Th1 cells. Besides, it is a potent inducer of interferon gamma production by T lymphocytes and NK cells.

IL-12 overproduction causes allergic disorders. Corticosteroids inhibit the effects of IL-12.

Interleukin-13 (IL-13)

CD4+T cells (Th2), NKT cells and mast cells synthesize IL-13. It acts on monocytes, fibroblasts, epithelial cells and B cells. The IL-13 significant effects are B-cell growth and differentiation, stimulates isotype switching to IgE. It causes increased mucus production by epithelial cells, increased collagen synthesis by fibroblasts and inhibits pro-inflammatory cytokine production. Also, IL-13 works together with IL-4 in producing biologic effects associated with allergic inflammation and in defense against parasites.

Interleukin-14 (IL-14)

T cells produce IL-14, and its principal effects are stimulation of activated B cell proliferation and inhibition of immunoglobulin secretion.

Interleukin-15 (IL-15)

Monocytes, epithelium, and muscles make IL-15. It acts on T cells and activated B cells. It causes the proliferation of both B and T cells. It causes NK cell memory and CD8+ T cell proliferation.

Interleukin-16 (IL-16)

Eosinophils and CD8+T cells synthesize IL-16. Its principal target is CD4+ T cells. It causes CD4+ T cell chemoattraction.

Interleukin-17 (IL-17)

This cytokine is produced by Th-17. It acts on epithelial and endothelial cells. IL-17 main effects are the release of IL-6 and other pro-inflammatory cytokines. It enhances the activities of antigen-presenting cells. It stimulates chemokine synthesis by endothelial cells.

Interleukin-18 (IL-18)

Macrophages mostly make IL-18, which can be produced by hepatocytes and keratinocytes. Its principal target is a co-factor in Th1 cell induction. It causes interferon gamma production and enhances NK cell activity.

Interleukin-19 (IL-19)

Th2 lymphocytes synthesize IL-19 and acts on resident vascular cells in addition to immune cells. It is an anti-inflammatory molecule. It promotes immune responses mediated by regulatory lymphocytes and has substantial activity on microvascular.

IL-19 may be used to induce angiogenesis in ischemic tissue.

Interleukin-20 (IL-20)

Immune cells and activated epithelial cells secrete IL-20. It acts on epithelial cells. It plays a vital role in the cellular communication between epithelial cells and the immune system under inflammatory conditions.

Interleukin-21 (IL-21)

NK cells and CD4+ T lymphocytes make IL-21. It acts on various immune cells of innate and the adaptive immune systems. IL-21 promotes B and T lymphocyte proliferation and differentiation. It enhances NK cell activity.

The administration of IL-21 may be considered for use as a preventive and therapeutic approach when dealing with Th2-mediated allergic diseases.

Interleukin-22 (IL-22)

Different cells in both innate and acquired immunities produce IL-22, but the primary sources are T cells. Th22 cell is a new line of CD4+ T cells, which differentiated from naive T cells in the presence of various pro-inflammatory cytokines including IL-6. IL-22 inhibits IL-4 production. It also has essential functions in mucosal surface protection and tissue repair.

Interleukin-23 (IL-23)

Macrophages and dendritic cells mainly synthesize IL-23. It acts on T cells causing maintenance of IL-17 producing T cells.

Interleukin-24 (IL-24)

Monocytes, T and B cells mostly make IL-24. It causes cancer-specific cell death, causes wound healing and protects against bacterial infections and cardiovascular diseases.

Interleukin-25 (IL-25)

Dendritic cells produced predominantly IL-25. It acts on various types of cells, including Th2 cells. It stimulates the synthesis of Th2 cytokine profile including IL-4 and IL-13.

Interleukin-26 (IL-26)

It is strongly associated inflammatory activity with IL-26. Th17 cells produce this interleukin. It acts on epithelial cells and intestinal epithelial cells. It induces IL-10 expression, stimulates the production of IL-1-beta, IL-6, and IL-8 and causes Th17 cell generation.

IL-26 shows high expression in psoriatic skin lesions, colonic lesions from individuals with inflammatory bowel disease and synovia of individuals with rheumatoid arthritis. It may constitute a promising target to treat chronic inflammatory disorders.

Interleukin-27 (IL-27)

T cells make IL-27 that activates STAT-1 and STAT-3, which regulates immune responses. IL-27 stimulates IL-10 production. It is a pro-inflammatory molecule and upregulates type-2 interferon synthesis by natural killer cells.

IL-27 was found to exerts anti-inflammatory effects in several experimental autoimmune models. IL-27 treatment suppressed autoimmune diabetes.  

Interleukin-28 (IL-28)

Regulatory T-cells synthesize IL-28, which acts on keratinocytes and melanocytes. It stimulates cell presentation of viral antigens to CD8+T lymphocytes. IL-28 also upregulates TLR-2 and TLR-3 expression. IL-28 enhances the keratinocyte capacity to recognize pathogens in the healthy skin.

IL-28 may be sufficient treatment of HCV patients.

Interleukin-29 (IL-29)

IL-29 is a type-3 interferon and produced by virus-infected cells, dendritic cells, and regulatory T-cells. It upregulates viral protective responses. Virus-infected cells may regulate IL-29 genome.

IL-29 is a marker of osteoarthritis as joint inflammation implicates it.

Interleukin-30 (IL-30)

Monocytes mainly produce IL-30 in response to TLR agonists including bacterial LPS. It acts on monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells, T and B lymphocytes, natural killer cells, mast cells, and endothelial cells.

Interleukin-31 (IL-31)

IL-31 is produced mainly by Th2 cells and dendritic cells. It is a proinflammatory cytokine and a chemotactic factor that direct polymorphonuclear cells, monocytes, and T cells to inflammatory lesions. IL-31 induces chemokines production and synthesis of IL-6, IL-16, and IL-32.

Interleukin-32 (IL-32)

IL-32 is a pro-inflammatory molecule. Natural killer cells and monocytes mainly produce it. IL-32 induces the synthesis of various cytokines including IL-6, and IL-1beta. It inhibits IL-15 production.

Interleukin-33 (IL-33)

Mast cells and Th2 lymphocytes express IL-33 that acts on various innate and immune cells including dendritic cells and T and B lymphocytes. It mediates Th2 responses and therefore participates in the protection against parasites and type-I hypersensitivity reaction.

Interleukin-34 (IL-34)

Various phagocytes and epithelial cells synthesize Interleukin-34 (IL-34). It enhances IL-6 production and participates in the differentiation and development of antigen-presenting cells including microglia.

Interleukin-35 (IL-35)

Regulatory B cells mainly secrete it. One of the primary functions of this interleukin is its involvement in lymphocyte differentiation. It exhibits an immune-suppressive effect.

Interleukin-36 (IL-36)

Phagocytes mainly make IL-36. It acts on T lymphocytes and NK cells regulating the IFN-γ synthesis. It stimulates the hematopoiesis and expression of both MHC class I and II molecules as well as intracellular adhesion molecules (ICAM)-1.  

IL-36 also seems to play a significant role in human psoriasis. In psoriatic lesion tissues, IL-36 levels were found to be elevated, and generalized pustular psoriasis was also discovered, which is rare and life-threatening. 

Interleukin-37 (IL-37)

IL-37 plays an essential role in the regulation of the innate immunity causing immunosuppression. Phagocytes and organs including the uterus, testis, and thymus express it.

IL-37 upregulates immune responses and inflammation in autoimmune disorders.

In lupus patients were elevated IL-37 levels in comparison with healthy controls, and mucocutaneous and renal involvement was correlated with high disease activity.

Interleukin-38 (IL-38)

Il-38 acts on T cells and inhibits the synthesis of IL-17 and IL-22.  The placenta, tonsil's B lymphocytes, spleen, skin, and thymus widely express IL-38.

Recent studies point to an association between IL-38 and autoimmune diseases. Its role in carcinogenesis or cancer growth is unclear.  

Interleukin (IL-39)

B lymphocytes mainly produce IL-39. It acts on neutrophils inducing their differentiation or expansion.

IL-39 secreted by activated B cells may be a critical pro-inflammatory cytokine and a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus.

Interleukin-40 (IL-40)

IL-40 is produced in the bone marrow, fetal liver, and by activated B cells. IL-40 plays a vital role in the development of humoral immune responses.

IL-40 expression in several human B-cell lymphomas suggests that it may play a role in the pathogenesis of these diseases.